Taiwan Today

Meng Tzu or Mencius, whose life is traditionally dated from 372 to 289 B.C., is China's Second Sage and the principal molder of the Confucian tradition that still permeates Chinese life and culture. His life had many parallels with that of Confucius. He, too, was a philosopher-teacher-actionist who hoped to persuade feudal lords to implement his ideas. Like Confucius, he traveled from state to state searching for a philosopher-king, or at least a king who would listen to a philosopher. He, too, could not find a seignior to act on his counsel. His influence was exerted through his teachings and the writings of his disciples.

Two hundred years before, Confucius had feared the world was on the edge of anarchy. By Mencius time it had fallen in. The old feudal order to which both Confucius and Mencius looked for social control and sanity in the affairs of men had completely broken down. This was the period of the Warring States. Seven of the larger feudal kingdoms had swallowed up their neighbors and were battling for supremacy. Rulers who were conspiring and selling out each other had neither time nor patience for Mencius' idealism. Mencius also faced the necessity of refuting the competing philosophies of Mo Tzu and Yang Chu.

Basic in Mencius' teachings, as in those of Confucius, is the principal of jen or humanity. But to this Mencius added the concept of i—"righteousness", "propriety" or "duty". This "righteousness" must not be confused with that of natural law in Western philosophy. It is an idea rooted in feudalism. Mo Tzu had maintained that men should love each other equally. Mencius suggested that in practice, one's love for others could be expressed only in accordance with the social positions and obligations involved.

Mencius went well beyond Confucius in his advocacy of a right of revolution. He argued that the ruler exists for the sake of those who are ruled. The ruler must see to the welfare and security of the people; he must set the example of virtue. A ruler who neglects his responsibilities, or who oppresses the people, does not deserve to govern. The people are absolved of obligation to obey him. In Mencius' time, such a view was no less heretical than it was in John Locke's era two millennia later.

Men Are Good

To find Utopia, Mencius turned in the same direction as Confucius—toward the sage-kings Yao and Shun and the early rulers of the Chou dynasty. But Confucius had only generalized his yearning for this time of perfect virtue, peace, and order. Mencius was specific. He specified the details of the feudal hierarchy, the land system, and other phases of the political and economic systems. In doing so, he insisted that the ruler had to provide the people with an adequate living. If he didn't. all moral exhortations would fail, he said. He advocated equality in land distribution and wanted to restore the ancient system in which every eight farmers worked a common plot for the benefit of the government.

Mencius found both men and society to be fundamentally good. However, although men were born with the beginnings of virtue and an inclination toward goodness, they could easily fall into evil through the neglect and abuse of the right way. Similarly, he viewed the society of his time as a perversion and corruption of earlier times. The state needed to return to the purity and order of the past, just as the individual had to recover his child-like heart to find his innate goodness.

On the subject of human nature, Mencius had these dialogues with Kao Tzu, a critic and possibly a former pupil, and with Kung-tu Tzu, a disciple:

Kao Tzu: "The nature of man may be likened to the willow tree, whereas righteousness may be likened to wooden cups and wicker baskets. To turn man's nature into humanity and righteousness is like turning a willow tree into cups and baskets."

What Is Nature?

Mencius: "Sir, can you follow the nature of the willow tree, and make the cups and baskets? If you must violate the nature of the willow tree to turn it into cups and baskets, then don't you mean you must also violate the nature of man to turn it into humanity and righteousness? Your words, alas, would incite everyone in the world to regard humanity and righteousness as a curse!"

Kao Tzu: "The nature of man may be likened to a swift current of water; you lead it eastward and it will flow to the east; you lead it westward and it will flow to the west. Human nature is neither disposed to good nor to evil, just as water is neither disposed to east nor west."

Mencius: "It is true that water is either disposed to east nor west, but is it neither disposed to flowing upward nor downward? The tendency of human nature to do good is like that of water to flow downward. There is no man who does not tend to do good; there is no water that does not flow downward. Now you may strike water and make it splash over your forehead, or you may even force it up the hills. But is this in the nature of water? It is of course due to the force of circumstances. Similarly, man may be brought to do evil, and that is because the same is done to his nature."

Kao Tzu: "Nature is what is born in us."

Mencius: " 'Nature is what is born in us' - is it not the same as saying white is white?"

Kao Tzu: "Yes."

Mencius: "Then the whiteness of a white feather is the same as the whiteness of white snow, and the whiteness of white snow the same as the whiteness of white jade?"

Kao Tzu: "Yes."

Mencius: "Well, then, the nature of a feather is the same as the whiteness of white snow, and the whiteness of white snow the same as the whiteness of white jade?"

Kao Tzu: "The appetite for food and sex is part of our nature. Humanity comes from within and not from without, whereas righteousness comes from without and not from within."

Mencius: "What do you mean when you say that humanity comes from within while righteousness comes from without?"

Kao Tzu: "When I see anyone who is old I regard him as old. This regard for age is not a part of me. Just as when I see anyone who is white I regard him as white, because I can observe the whiteness externally. For this reason I say righteousness comes from without."

Mencius: "Granted there is no difference between regarding the white horse as white and the white man as white. But is there no difference between one's regard for age in an old horse and one's regard for age in an old man, I wonder? Moreover, is it old age itself or our respectful regard for old age that constitutes a point of righteousness?"

Kao Tzu: "My own brother I love; the brother of a man of Ch'in I do not love. Here the sanction for the feeling rests in me, and therefore I call it (humanity) internal. An old man of Ch'u I regard as old, just as an old man among my own people I regard as old. Here the sanction for the feeling lies in old age, and therefore I call it (righteousness) external."

Mencius: "We love the Ch'in people's roast as much as we love our own roast. Here we have a similar situation with respect to things. Would you say, then, that this love of roast is also something external?"

Kung-tu Tzu: "Kao Tzu says that human nature is neither good nor bad. Some say that human nature can be turned into good or bad. Thus when (sage kings) Wen and Wu were in power the people loved virtue; when (wicked kings) Yu and Li were in power the people indulged in violence. Some say that some natures are good and some are bad. Thus even while (the sage) Yao was sovereign there was the bad man Hsiang, even a bad father like Ku-sou had a good son like (the sage king) Shun, and even with (the wicked) Chou for nephew and king there were the men of virtue Ch'i, the Viscount of Wei, and the Prince Pi-kan. Now, you say that human nature is good. Are the others then all wrong?"

The Quality of Mercy

Mencius: "When left to follow its natural feelings human nature will do good. This is why I say it is good. If it becomes evil, it is not the fault of man's original capability. The sense of mercy is found in all men; the sense of shame is found in all men; the sense of respect is found in all men; the sense of right and wrong is found in all men. The sense of mercy constitutes humanity; the sense of shame constitutes righteousness; the sense of respect constitutes decorum; the sense of right and wrong constitutes wisdom. Humanity, righteousness, decorum, and wisdom are not something instilled into us from without; they are inherent in our nature. Only we give them no thought. Therefore it is said: 'Seek and you will find them, neglect and you will lose them'. Some have these virtues to a much greater degree than others -twice, five times, and incalculably more and that is because those others have not developed to the fullest extent their original capability. It is said in the Book of Odes:

Heaven so produced the teeming multitudes that
For everything there is its principle.
The people will keep to the constant principles,
And all will love a beautiful character.

Confucius said, regarding this poem: 'The writer of this poem understands indeed the nature of the way! For wherever there are things and affairs there must be their principles. As the people keep to the constant principles, they will come to love a beautiful character.' "

Who lacks Kindness?

Mencius: "All men have a sense of commiseration. The ancient kings had this commiserating heart and hence a commiserating government. When a commiserating government is conducted from a commiserating heart, one can rule the whole empire as if one were turning it on one's palm. Why I say all men have a sense of commiseration is this: Here is a man who suddenly notices a child about to fall into a well. Invariably he will feel a sense of alarm and compassion. And this is not for the purpose of gaining the favor of the child's parents, or seeking the approbation of his neighbors and friends, or for fear of blame should he fail to rescue the child. Thus we see that no man is without a sense of compassion, or a sense of shame, or a sense of courtesy, or a sense of right and wrong. The sense of compassion is the beginning of humanity; the sense of shame is the beginning of righteousness; the sense of courtesy is the beginning of decorum; the sense of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom. Every man has within himself these four beginnings, just as he has four limbs. Since everyone has these four beginnings within him, the man who considers himself incapable of exercising them is destroying himself. If he considers his sovereign incapable of exercising them, he is likewise destroying his sovereign. Let every man but attend to expanding and developing these four beginnings that are in our very being, and they will issue forth like a conflagration being kindled and a spring being opened up. If they can be fully developed, these virtues are capable of safeguarding all within the four seas; if allowed to remain undeveloped, they will not suffice even for serving one's parents."

Mencius: "Man's innate ability is the ability possessed by him that is not acquired through learning. Man's innate knowledge is the knowledge possessed by him that is not the result of reflective thinking. Every child knows enough to love his parents, and when he is grown up he knows enough to respect his elder brothers. The love for one's parents is really humanity and the respect for one's elders is really righteousness-all that is necessary is to have these natural feelings applied to all men."

Humane Government

These are Mencius' view on humane government:

Mencius went to see King Hui of Liang. King Hui: "You have not considered a thousand li too far to come, and must therefore have something of profit to offer my kingdom?"

Mencius: "Why must you speak of profit? What I have to offer is humanity and righteousness, nothing more. If a king says, 'What will you profit my kingdom?' the high officials will say, 'What Will profit our families?' and the lower officials and commoners will say, 'What will profit ourselves?' Superiors and inferiors will try to seize profit from one another and the state will be endangered. Let Your Majesty speak only of humanity and righteousness."

Mencius: "It was by virtue of humanity that the Three Dynasties won the empire, and by virtue of the want of humanity that they lost it. States rise and fall for the same reason. Devoid of humanity, the emperor would be unable to safeguard the four seas, a feudal lord would be unable to safeguard the altars of land and grain (his state), a minister would be unable to safeguard the ancestral temple (his clan-family), and the individual would be unable to safeguard his four limbs. Now people hate destruction and yet indulge in want of humanity - this is as if one hates to get drunk and yet forces oneself to drink wine."

Mencius: "An overlord is he who employs force under a cloak of humanity. To be an overlord one has to be in possession of a large state. A king, on the other hand, is he who gives expression to his humanity through virtuous conduct. To be a true king, one does not have to have a large state. T'ang (founder of the Shang dynasty) had only a territory of 70 li and King Wen (founder of the Chou) only 100. When men are subdued by force, it is not that they submit from their hearts but only that their strength is unavailing. When men are won by virtue, then their hearts are gladdened and their submission is sincere, as the 70 disciples were won by the Master, Confucius. This is what is meant in the Book of Odes when it says:

From east and west,
From north and south,
Came none who thought of disobedience.

Evil Cannot Win All

Mencius: "States have been won by men without humanity, but the world, never."

Mencius: "It was because Chieh and Chou lost the people that they lost the empire, and it was because they lost the hearts of the people that they lost the people. Here is the way to win the empire: win the people and you win the empire. Here is the way to win the people: win their hearts and you win the people. Here is the way to win their hearts: give them and share with them what they like, and do not do to them what they do not like. The people turn to a humane ruler as water flows downward or beasts take to wilderness."

Of the economic basis of humane government, the Second Sage had this to say:

Mencius (addressing King Hsuan of Ch'i): "Only the true scholar is capable of maintaining, without certain means of livelihood, a steadfast heart. As for the multitude, if they have no certain means of livelihood, they surely cannot maintain a steadfast heart. Without a steadfast heart, they are likely to abandon themselves to any and all manner of depravity. If you wait till they have lapsed into crime and then mete out punishment, it is like placing traps for the people. If a humane ruler is on the throne, how can he permit such a thing as placing traps for the people? Therefore, when an intelligent ruler regulates the livelihood of the people, he makes sure that they will have enough to serve their parents on the one hand and to support their wives and children on the other, so that in good years all may eat their fill and in bad years no one need die of starvation. Thus only will he urge them to walk the path of virtue, and the people will follow him effortlessly. But as the people's livelihood is ordered at present, they do not have enough to serve their parents on the one hand or to support their wives and children on the other. Even in good years life is one long struggle and in bad years death becomes all but inevitable. Such being the case, they are only anxiously trying to stay alive. What leisure have they for cultivating decorum and righteousness?"

Good of the People

"If Your Majesty wishes to practice humane government, would it not be well to go back to the root of the matter?

"Let the five mu (a mu or mou is about one-sixth of an acre) surrounding the farmer's cottage be planted with mulberry trees, and persons over 50 may all be clothed in silk. Let poultry, dogs, and swine be kept and bred in season, and those over 70 may all be provided with meat. Let the cultivation of the 100-mu farm not be interfered with, and a family of eight mouths need not go hungry. Let attention be paid to teaching in schools and let the people be taught the principles of filial piety and brotherly respect, and white-headed old men will not be seen carrying loads on the road. When the aged wear silk and eat meat and the common people are free from hunger and cold, never has the lord of such a people failed to become king."

Possibly the well-field system of land tenure was not widely prevalent, even in early Chou times. Mencius believed in it, however, and the ideal was accepted by later Confucianists. Duke Wen of T'eng sent Pi Chan to Mencius to learn about the well-field system

Mencius: "Now that your prince has made up his mind to put through a humane measure in government and has appointed you to carry it out, you must do your best. At the bottom of all humane government, we might say, lies the system of land division and demarcation. When the land system is not in proper operation, then the well-field farms are not equally distributed among the farmers or the grain for salaries equitably apportioned among the ministers. So a wicked lord or a corrupt magistrate usually lets the land system fall into disuse. When the land system is in proper operation, on the other hand, the distribution of land and the apportioning of salaries can be settled where you sit.

"Although T'eng is a small state, yet there must be those who are gentlemen and those who are countrymen. Without the gentlemen there would be none to rule the countrymen; without the countrymen there would be none to feed the gentlemen.

Feudal System of Taxes

"In the surrounding country let the land tax be fixed at one part in nine to be paid according to the well-field group plan, while within the limits of the state capital let it be one in ten to be paid individually. For all officers, from the chief ministers down, there should be sacrificial land in lots of 50 mu. For all extra-quota men in a household, there should be additional land in lots of 25 mu. Whether in burying the dead or in house-moving, a family does not go beyond the district. Within the district those whose farms belong to the same well-field unit befriend one another in their goings out and comings in, practice mutual aid in their self-defense, and uphold one another in sickness. Thus the people learn to live in affection and harmony.

"Each well-field unit is one li square and contains 900 mu of land. The center lot is the public field. The eight households each own a 100-mu farm and collaborate in cultivating the public field. When the public field has been properly attended, they may attend to their own work." (The feudal well-field unit has the configuration of the Chinese character ( ) meaning a well.)

Discussing the importance of the people and the right of revolution, Mencius set forth this line of thought:

Wan Chang (Mencius' disciple): "Is it true that Yao gave the empire to Shun?"
Mencius: "No. The emperor cannot give the empire to another."

Wan Chang: "Who then gave it to him, when Shun had the empire?"

Mencius: "Heaven gave it to him."

Wan Chang: "You say Heaven gave it to him-did Heaven do it with an explicit charge?"

Mencius: "No. Heaven does not speak. It simply signified its will through his conduct and handling of affairs."

Wan Chang: "How was this done?"

Mencius: "Of old, Yao recommended Shun to Heaven and Heaven accepted him. This is why I said that Heaven does not speak but simply signified its will through Shun's conduct and handling of affairs."

People Rank First

Wan Chang: "May I venture to ask, how was this acceptance by Heaven and the people indicated?"

Mencius: "He was appointed to preside over the sacrifices, and all the spirits were pleased with them: that indicated his acceptance by Heaven. He was placed in charge of public affairs, and they were well administered and the people were at peace: that indicated his acceptance by the people. Heaven thus gave him the empire; the people thus gave him the empire. That is why I said, the emperor cannot give the empire to another. That is what is meant in the Great Declaration (of the Book of History) where it is said: 'Heaven sees as my people see, Heaven hears as my people hear'."

Mencius: "Men are in the habit of speaking of the world, the state. As a matter of fact, the foundation of the world lies in the state, the foundation of the state lies in the family, and the foundation of the family lies in the individual."

Mencius: "The people rank the highest, the spirits of land and grain come next, and the ruler counts the least (in the constitution of a state)."

Mencius: "There are three things that a feudal lord should treasure-land, people, and the administration of government. If he should treasure pearls and jades instead, calamity is sure to befall him."

Mencius: "It is not so important to censure the men appointed to office, it is not so important to criticize the measures adopted in government. The truly great is he who is capable of rectifying what is wrong with the ruler's heart."

Mencius (to King Hsuan of Ch'i): "When the ruler regards his ministers as his hands and feet, the ministers regard their ruler as their heart and bowels. When the ruler regards his ministers as his dogs and horses, the ministers regard their ruler as a stranger. When the ruler regards his ministers as dust and grass, the ministers regard their ruler as a brigand or foe."

Rulers and Scoundrels

King Hsuan: "Is it not true that Tang banished Chieh and that King Wu smote Chou?"

Mencius: "It is so stated in the records." King Hsuan: "Maya subject, then, slay his sovereign?"

Mencius: "He who outrages humanity is a scoundrel; he who outrages righteousness is a scourge. A scourge or a scoundrel is a despised creature (and no longer a king). I have heard that a despised creature called Chou was put to death, but I have not heard anything about the murdering of a sovereign."

King Hsuan: "The feudal lords of many states are plotting war against me; how shall I deal with them?"

Mencius: "I have heard of one who, with a territory of only 70 li, extended his rule to the whole empire. That was Tang. But never have I heard of the lord of a thousand li having to stand in fear of others. It is said in the Book of History: 'Tang launched his punitive expedition, first against Ko. The whole empire had faith in him. When he carried his campaign to the east, the tribes in the west grumbled. When he carried his campaign to the south, the tribes in the north grumbled, saying: 'Why should we be last?' People looked for his coming as they would look for the rain clouds in time of great drought. Those going to the market were not stopped; those tilling the land were not interrupted. He put their rulers to death and he consoled the people. His visit was like the falling of rain in season, and the people were overjoyed. Thus it is said in the Book of History: 'We have been waiting for our lord. When he comes, we shall have a new life'."

Virtue of Filial Piety

Mencius defended the Confucian view of filial piety against Yang Chu, the individualist, and Mo Tzu, the advocate of universal love. This has helped to make filial piety one of the cardinal virtues of the Confucian system.

Mencius: "Now that sage-kings are no longer with us, the feudal lords yield to their lusts and idle scholars indulge in senseless disputation. The words of Yang Chu and Mo Ti (Mo Tzu) fill the land, and the talk of the land is either Yang Chu or Mo Ti. Yang is for individualism, which does not recognize the sovereign; Mo is for universal love, which does not recognize parents. To be without sovereign or parent is to be a beast."

Mencius: "Of services, which is the greatest? The service of parents is the greatest. Of charges, which is the greatest? The charge of oneself is the greatest. Not failing to keep oneself and thus being able to serve one's parents - this I have heard of. Failing to keep oneself and yet being able to serve one's parents - this I have not heard of."

Mencius: "There are three things which are unfilial, and the greatest of them is to have no posterity."

Mencius: "The substance of humanity is to serve one's parents; the basis of righteousness is to obey one's elder brothers."